Recent Progress and Methodology for the Characterization of Layer-Effects of Extrusion-Based 3D-Printed Concrete (2026-03)¶

Three-dimensional printed concrete (3DPC) has emerged as an innovative construction technology for extreme environments, offering advantages in thermal insulation, reduced labor requirements, and rapid construction. However, this layer-by-layer deposition process brings interlayer effects that affect mechanical anisotropy, permeability, and thermal performance, posing challenges for structural reliability. This review systematically examines current methods for characterizing and mitigating interlayer effects in 3DPC. Material-related factors—including admixtures, aggregates, recycled materials, fibers, and geopolymer incorporation—alongside process parameters such as printing speed, nozzle geometry, layer height, interlayer time, and environmental conditions, are analyzed for their influence on interlayer quality. State-of-the-art techniques for evaluating interlayer voids, mechanical behavior, and thermal performance are summarized. Moreover, results from micro-imaging, mechanical testing, and heat transfer assessments are also introduced. Ultimately, strategies for optimizing material composition and printing parameters to improve interlayer bonding and overall performance are highlighted. Overall, this paper provides a methodological framework to guide the design, testing, and practical implementation of 3DPC in demanding engineering applications.