A Database-Driven Study on Durability and Sustainability of 3D Concrete Printing Mixtures (2026-04)¶

3D concrete printing (3DCP) is gaining attention for its potential in structural and infrastructural applications. While a substantial body of research focuses on developing mixtures for extrusion-based 3DCP, most studies emphasize mechanical performance, while durability and sustainability remain less explored despite their importance for long-term structural reliability and environmental impact. This study addresses this gap through a literature-based comparative database, which compiles mix designs, material replacement types and proportions, and corresponding mechanical and durability parameters. Lower-bound, upper-bound, and favourable performance ranges are identified to allow cross-comparison of mixtures. Results are categorized according to the type of material replacement, namely binder, aggregates, fibres, or additives, and durability-related indicators are evaluated together with sustainability outcomes derived from life cycle assessment. The findings show that moderate binder replacement (15–30%) provides the most balanced performance, maintaining strength and durability while reducing climate change impacts by up to 24%. Aggregate replacement enhances mechanical properties and helps save resources, although its environmental benefits are more limited. Fibre inclusion improves compressive strength and reduces porosity and water absorption, but increases embodied impacts up to 19%, while additives improve fresh-state behaviour only at very low dosages, beyond which porosity, strength losses, and emissions rise sharply. Overall, by jointly considering mechanical performance, durability, and sustainability impacts, this study provides an integrated perspective to support informed mixture optimisation for more durable and environmentally responsible 3DCP applications.